European Space Agency: https://www.esa.int

Progresja Space Sp. z o.o.: http://progresja.space

Vacuum facility

The basic piece of infrastructure is the main vacuum chamber for simulating of space environment, with volume of about 2.5 m³ and diameter of Ø1.2 m equipped with a system of oil-free vacuum pumps: Roots pump with efficiency of up to 450 m³/h, turbomolecular pump with efficiency of about 3000 l/s and a two-stage cryogenic pump with pumping speed of about 30000 l/s for nitrogen, 34000 l/s for xenon and 43000 l/s for krypton (catalog data) – see table below. This system allows to study both Pulsed Plasma Thrusters and Hall Thrusters while supplied with 3-5 mg/s of xenon, dynamically maintaining pressure in the chamber at the level of 5x10^-5 mbar, which is enough to carry out relevant research.

Photograph of IPPLM’s vacuum facility for simulating space vacuum for experiments with PPT and HET plasma thrusters.

Main parameters of the vacuum facility

Dynamic efficiency of the whole pumping system while working with krypton and xenon is, respectively, 18 m³/s and 14 m³/s, and linearity of the system is illustrated in the plot below, where the ultimate pressure is shown as a function of mass flow rate supplied into the chamber (as with working thruster). With no mass flow rate the vacuum goes down to about 3-5×10^-8 mbar when all pumps are operating, and without the cryogenic pump it rises to about 2-4×10^-7 mbar.

Ultimate pressure in IPPLM’s chamber as a function of krypton mass flow rate supplied into the chamber (measurement with ionization gauge Oerlikon-Leybold ITR 90 Ionivac krypton-corrected)

Besides the main vacuum chamber, the Laboratory also owns an auxiliary vacuum facility consisting of a chamber with volume of 0.035 m³ and a two-stage pumping system capable of creating vacuum at the level of 5x10^-7 mbar.

Auxiliary vacuum facility.

Gas and power supply system

For testing of Hall Thrusters a gas supply system was created relying on mass flow controllers Sierra-Instruments Smart-Trak C100L which can be used for most of inert gases. The range of chosen controllers match the needs of anode and cathode of studied Hall Thrusters (0-50 sccm and 0-6 sccm).

For supplying of the Hall Thruster with electrical power commercial power supplies are used:

Power system

Diagnostics

PlaNS is equipped with a range of diagnostics allowing to comprehensively measure plasma thrusters.

The main one is the thrust balance (produced in the scope of LμPPT project by a Swiss company MECARTEX) operating on the principle of a precise dynamometer. The device is able to measure both thrust in mN range and impulse bits in μNs range by monitoring displacement of the balance and comparing it with calibrating signal.

Thrust measurement for Hall Thruster.

Impulse bit measurement for PPT.

Apart from that the Laboratory has also plasma diagnostics including Faraday probe, Langmuir probe and Retarding Potential Analyzer. They can be mounted on a special manipulator which allows to carry out measurements of the emitted plasma beam in range from -90^o to +90^o.

Hall Thruster installed inside the vacuum chamber on the thrust balance. The scaffolding supporting the manipulator for the diagnostics is also visible.

HiPER High Power Electric propulsion: a Roadmap for future
EC/FP7 GA no. 218859
Duration: 1.10.2008 – 31.01.2012

It was a large project with 20 European entities coordinated by Alta SpA, in the scope of which a large 20 kW Hall Thruster with approximately 1 N of thruster was built. The task of the IPPLM was to create a numerical tool HETMAn for simulations of the thruster and to carry out numerical analyses in a wide range of operating parameters of the thruster. Validity of the model was confirmed by experimental results.

LµPPT Innovative Liquid Micro Pulsed Plasma Thruster system for nanosatellites
EC/FP7 GA no. 283279
Duration: 1.11.2011 – 31.10.2014

In the project coordinated by a Spanish company JMP INGENIEROS an innovative method of supplying PPT with liquid, non-volatile propellant was proposed. Two prototypes of laboratory thruster were built and a large increase of performance was demonstrated – almost double improvement of efficiency with respect to similar systems fueled with solid Teflon, with specific impulse of 1000 s and more. Full confirmation of the validity of the concept was obtained, thus ending the project at TRL 3.

Related publications:
(1) S. Barral, J. Kurzyna, E. Remírez, R. Martin, P. Ortiz, J. Alonso, S. Bottinelli, Y. Mabillard, A. Zaldívar, P. Rangsten, C. R. Koppel (2013). Development Status of an Open Capillary Pulsed Plasma Thruster with Non-Volatile Liquid Propellant. 33rd International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2013-291.
(2) S. Barral, J. Kurzyna, A. Szelecka, H. Rachubiński, E. Remírez, R. Martin, P. Ortiz, J. Alonso, Y. Mabillard, S. Bottinelli, A. Zaldívar, P. Rangsten, C. R. Koppel (2014). First Experimental Characterization of a Pulsed Plasma Thruster with Non-Volatile Liquid Propellant. Space Propulsion Conference 2014, 2980924.
(3) S. Barral, J. Kurzyna, A. Szelecka, H. Rachubiński, D. Daniłko, R. Martín, E. Remírez, P. Ortiz, J. Alonso, Y. Mabillard, S. Bottinelli, A. Zaldívar, P. Rangsten, C. R. Koppel (2015). Time-Of-Flight Spectrometry and Performance of a Pulsed Plasma Thruster with Non-Volatile Propellant. Joint Conference of 30th International Symposium on Space Technology and Science, 34th International Electric Propulsion Conference and 6th Nano-satellite Symposium, IEPC-2015-141/ISTS-2015-b-141.
(4) A. Szelecka, J. Kurzyna, D. Daniłko, S. Barral (2015). Liquid micro pulsed plasma thruster. NUKLEONIKA 60(2):257-261. doi: 10.1515/nuka-2015-0057.
(5) Z. Peradzyński, K. Makowski, J. Kurzyna (2019). Early stage of the discharge in ablative pulsed plasma thrusters. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 28, 024001. doi: 10.1088/1361-6595/aaf95e.

KLIMT Krypton Large Impulse Thruster
ESA/PECS GA no. 4000107746/3/Nl/KML
Duration: 1.03.2013 – 15.06.2016

Three subsequent laboratory versions of a 500 W krypton Hall Thruster were created. The tests demonstrated stable work and performance in line with devices of this size and power, both for krypton and xenon. TRL 3 was achieved.

Related publications:
(1) J. Kurzyna, D. Daniłko (2011). IPPLM Hall Effect Thruster – design guidelines and preliminary tests. 32nd International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2011-221.
(2) J. Kurzyna (2014). Numerical investigation of the Krypton Large IMpulse Thruster. Phys. Scr. 014051. doi: 10.1088/0031-8949/2014/T161/014051.
(3) J. Kurzyna, S. Barral, D. Daniłko, J. Miedzik, A. Bulit, K. Dannenmayer (2014). First Tests of the KLIMT Thruster with Xenon Propellant at the ESA Propulsion Laboratory. Space Propulsion Conference 2014, 2980923.
(4) J. Kurzyna, A. Szelecka, D. Daniłko, S. Barral, K. Dannenmayer, E. Bosch Borras, T. Schönherr (2016). Testing KLIMT prototypes at IPPLM and ESA Propulsion Laboratories. Space Propulsion Conference 2016, 3125256.
(5) A. Szelecka, J. Kurzyna, L. Bourdain (2017). Thermal stability of the krypton Hall effect thruster. NUKLEONIKA 62(1):9-15. doi: 10.1515/nuka-2017-0002.
(6) J. Kurzyna, M. Jakubczak, A. Szelecka, K. Dannenmayer (2018). Performance tests of IPPLM’s krypton Hall thruster. Laser and Particle Beams 36, 105–114. doi: 10.1017/S0263034618000046.
(7) A. Szelecka, M. Jakubczak, J. Kurzyna (2018). Plasma beam structure diagnostics in krypton Hall thruster. Laser and Particle Beams 36, 219–225. doi: 10.1017/S0263034618000198.

HIKHET – 0.5 kW class HET for operation at high voltage with krypton propellant
ESA/PLIIS GA no. 4000122415/17/NL/GE
Duration: 12.01.2018 – 30.04.2021

Project HIKHET – High Impulse Krypton Hall Effect Thruster (funded by the European Space Agency in the scope of Polish Industry Incentive Scheme programme), was aimed to develop a high specific impulse version of the IPPLM’s 500 W class Hall plasma thruster operated with krypton propellant.

Hall thruster fed with krypton and working in PlaNS Laboratory.

Specific impulse, i.e. the impulse per one kilogram of the propellant, is a measure of how effectively the propellant available onboard of a satellite is utilized. Since almost all of the new satellites are equipped with a propulsion system which allows them to carry out orbital maneuvers to extend their mission and to finally deorbit, it is the amount of available propellant onboard which largely determines the lifetime of the satellite.
During the 3 years of the project, in PlaNS Laboratory the initial version of the thruster (developed in the scope of the earlier KLIMT project) was enhanced and extensively tested, new diagnostics of the emitted plasma beam were implemented (Faraday Cup and Retarding Potential Analyzer), and an entirely new thruster was designed relying on the results from magnetic field modelling and thermal simulations. The final version of the thruster was tested in a wide range of operating parameters (type of propellant, mass flow rate, discharge voltage, magnetic field strength), showing an increase of the specific impulse from 1400 s to 2600 s and simultaneous efficiency improvement from 20% to 34% (for krypton). Moreover, the new design resulted in operating temperature lower by 100^oC and mass reduced by 30%. The achieved performance allows to compete with other Hall thruster of similar power, and makes the IPPLM’s thruster unique in the way of specific impulse production.

Specific impulse as a function of discharge power – comparison of KLIMT and HIKHET thrusters with other Hall thrusters described in literature (data for krypton).

Related publications:
(1) J. Kurzyna, M. Jakubczak, A. Szelecka, A. Riazantsev (2019). Preliminary Tests of HIKHET Laboratory Model at IFPiLM. 36th International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2019-591.
(2) A. Szelecka, M. Jakubczak, A. Riazantsev, A. Jardin, P. Lubiński, J. Kurzyna (2021). Searching for chaotic behavior in the ion current waveforms of a Hall effect thruster. Space Propulsion Conference 2020+1, SP2020_#218.
(3) A. Szelecka, M. Jakubczak, A. Riazantsev, J. Kurzyna (2021), Study of plasma dynamics in HET relying on global thruster characteristics parameterized with discharge voltage, The European Physical Journal Plus 136:782, doi: 10.1140/epjp/s13360-021-01734-z.
(4) M. Jakubczak, J. Kurzyna, A. Riazantsev (2021). Experimental Verification of the Magnetic Field Topography inside a small Hall Thruster. Measurement Science Review 21, 5. doi: 10.2478/msr-2021-0021.
(5) A. Jardin, M. Jakubczak, A. Riazantsev, A. Jardin, J. Kurzyna, P. Lubiński (2022). Searching for Chaotic Behavior in the Ion Current Waveforms of a Hall Effect Thruster. Journal of Fusion Energy 41:20. doi: 10.1007/s10894-022-00331-x.
(6) M. Jakubczak, A. Riazantsev, A. Jardin, J. Kurzyna (2022). Experimental Optimization of Small Krypton Hall Thruster for Operation at High Voltage. 37th International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2022-360.
(7) A. Riazantsev, Z. Peradzyński, K. Makowski (2022). Parametric Study of Debye Sheath Emergence Using Kinetic Simulations. 37th International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2022-385.
(8) O. Cichorek, Z. Peradzyński (2025). High and low efficiency subregimes of breathing mode oscillations in Hall thrusters. Physics of Plasmas 32, 022113. doi: 10.1063/5.0232441.

Pulsed plasma thruster for nano and micro satellites
NCBR/POIR umowa nr POIR.01.01.01-00-0857/19
Duration: 01.04.2020 – 31.10.2023

Together with a Polish company Liftero Sp. z o.o. (formerly Progresja Space Sp. z o.o.), IFPiLM took the successful proof-of-concept of the liquid-fed pulsed plasma thruster and developed it further towards commercialization. Designed for nanosatellites, the whole propulsion unit had volume of only 0.5U (electronics and propellant tank included) and power consumption of about 2 W. The performance of the last version was: impulse bit of 18.8 μNs, specific impulse 410 s, thruster efficiency of 3.5% (at 1 J). The thruster successfully carried out almost 1.5 milion discharges.

Pulsed plasma thruster in 0.5U form and long-exposure photo of its discharge.

Related publications:
(1) M. Jakubczak, A. Jardin, J. Kurzyna (2024). Analysis of composition and dynamics of the plasma plume emitted by a 1 J pulsed plasma thruster fed with polytetrafluoroethylene and determination of thruster efficiency components. Physics of Plasmas 31, 053501. doi: 10.1063/5.0189700.
(2) A. Riazantsev, M. Jakubczak, O. Cichorek, J. Kurzyna (2024) Side and front fast imaging of solid and liquid fed ablative pulsed plasma thruster’s discharge. Acta Astronautica 225, 583-594. doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.09.025.
(3) M. Jakubczak, A. Jardin, J. Kurzyna (2024) Plasma plume composition of a pulsed plasma thruster fed with perfluoropolyether, 38th International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2024-336.
(4) M. Jakubczak, A. Riazantsev, O. Cichorek, A. Jardin, J. Kurzyna, P. Drożdż, T. Palacz, M. Chuchla, R. Łabuz, G. Bywalec (2024) 1J-class Pulsed Plasma Thruster with Non-Volatile Propellant – Revisited. 38th International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2024-388.
(5) A. Riazantsev, M. Jakubczak, J. Kurzyna (2024) On Retrieval of Inductance and Resistance Dynamics from Experimental Waveforms of a 1 J-class PPT Discharge. 38th International Electric Propulsion Conference, IEPC-2024-797.
(6) M. Jakubczak, A. Riazantsev, O. Cichorek, A. Jardin, J. Kurzyna, P. Drożdż, T. Palacz, M. Chuchla, R. Łabuz, G. Bywalec (2025) Design and performance of a 1 J ablative pulsed plasma thruster fed with non-volatile liquid propellant. Acta Astronautica 228, 813-827. doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.12.039.
(7) M. Jakubczak, A. Jardin, J. Kurzyna (2025) Plume measurements of a 1 J ablative pulsed plasma thruster fed with non-volatile liquid propellant. Plasma Sources Science and Technology 34, 015010. doi: 10.1088/1361-6595/ada6fe.

Hall Thrusters

Ion Gridded Thrusters and Hall Thrusters are becoming the standard propulsion systems for relatively large satellites (micro and bigger) and have already made a big impact on space exploration in Smart-1 or Deep Space 1 missions, to name only a few. Currently, both technologies utilize xenon as propellant, which is chemically inert, easy to store and handle, and has low ionization cost with respect to other gases. However, for long-term missions the high cost of xenon is problematic, which prompts ESA (and others) to search for alternative propellant with better cost to efficiency ratio. Krypton (which was first suggested more than 20 years ago) shares many of the advantages with xenon, with only slightly higher ionization cost. However, despite several times lower market price, krypton has been used only experimentally because of the relatively poor efficiency of the thrusters in laboratory tests. Procurement of a krypton Hall thruster with increased efficiency would be no small achievement, which could allow the use of plasma thrusters in large interplanetary missions. In the light of current research the improvement of krypton Hall Thruster performance is possible with increased discharge voltage that also results in higher specific impulse which is a goal of its own due to propellant mass savings.

IPPLM’s Hall Thruster with nominal power of 500 W from the beginning had been designed with krypton propellant in mind and all that comes with it, for example the increased thermal loads in comparison with xenon. The reference thruster is the known and considered state-of-the-art SPT-100 with nominal power of 1350 W and discharge channel outer diameter of 100 mm.

Hall Thrusters belong to the group of electrostatic thrusters operated in continuous manner, for which effective gas ionization and ion acceleration requires a static magnetic field. Neutral gas is supplied through the anode making one end of an annular ceramic channel. The other end of the discharge channel is open. The cathode is positioned outside of the channel so that an axial (mainly) electric field E is produced inside the channel. Gas density is so small that mean ionization length of the atoms is much bigger than the dimensions of the device, which prohibits effective ionization. To remedy this, a radial magnetic field B is produced near the channel exit. Electrons are “trapped” in it and drift azimuthally in the crossed fields E×B (a Hall current is induced), which allows effective ionization of the atoms by collisions with the electrons supplied by an efficient cathode (usually of the hollow type, with its own arc discharge) located outside the channel. Despite the magnetic field, the collisions allow diffusive flow of an electron current towards the anode. However, the magnetic field is weak enough not to noticeably modify the trajectories of the ions, which allows them to obtain in the electric field axial velocities 15-25 km/s. Outside the channel the ions are neutralized by the additional electrons emitted from the same cathode, and in this way travel on as a quasi-neutral plasma stream, preventing the thruster and the satellite from charging. The thruster operates for as long as it is supplied with gas and voltage. The Hall Thruster shown in the photograph is the third version developed in the scope of the KLIMT project and the starting point for the HIKHET project.

Top: photograph of the third version of KLIMT. Attached is a commercial HeatWaveLabs cathode. Outer diameter of the discharge channel is 50 mm, channel width is 8 mm. Nominal power 500 W. Mass approximately 3 kg. Below is the thruster operating with krypton (left) and xenon (right).

Pulsed Plasma Thrusters

The long-term progress of the smallest satellites assumes that they should have their own means of propulsion allowing for residual drag compensation (they are usually placed in LEO orbits), attitude changes and even orbit changes (spiral orbit rising, deorbit), so should possess functionality available in large satellites for a long time. Due to the limited mass and onboard power (several W) of a nanosatellite on one hand, and the potential total velocity change (ΔV) on the other, choosing the right propulsion type is critical. According to current knowledge, the Pulsed Plasma Thrusters are a good candidate for extending the lifetime of nanosatellites and providing maneuverability, and the thrusters themselves can be improved. It is worth noting that due to the very precise dosage of impulse bits (through repetition) the thrusters of this type can be used also in larger spacecraft when positioning accuracy is important.

Pulsed Plasma Thrusters belong to the group of electromagnetic thrusters in which the mass ablated (pre-ionized cloud of gas) from an insulator (usually Teflon) is accelerated by Ampere force f=j×B acting on current of density j flowing through the plasma produced by electrical discharge between two electrodes supplied from a battery of capacitors. The magnetic field B required to create the force stems from the same discharge current which flows in the circuit. The effectiveness of acceleration of the mass depends on physical properties of the propellant (molecular mass, ionization potential etc.) and its utilization is described by the ratio of accelerated mass to supplied mass.

Innovation of the solution proposed in the scope of the L-μPPT project consist mainly of the use of a liquid fluoropolymer as the propellant with very low vapor pressure (1e-9 mbar) and chemical composition very similar to Teflon that is typically used. Thanks to this it was possible to greatly simplify the design with respect to other devices fed with liquid propellant (water, alcohols and other volatile organic liquids have been proposed), increase the precision of the dispensing unit by using open systems (capillary pumping in open channels), better localize the ablation zone and increase the total mass of the propellant with respect to thrusters using solid polymer. It is also possible to increase the total impulse in comparison to classical systems by increasing utilization of the propellant participating in the discharge. A big advantage is also the possibility to use a common fuel tank for several thrusters when several degrees of motion need to be considered for attitude control. This aspect is mostly interesting in comparison with the systems with solid polymers, where each thruster needs its own block of fuel, which does not allow to compensate its uneven loss in case of unequal demand of the thrusters. Moreover, constant supplying of the propellant into the discharge region prevents changing of the thruster efficiency due to consumption of the Teflon block.

The general scheme of L-μPPT is presented in the figure below. Diverging electrodes of convergent shape are connected to a battery of capacitors and are separated by a ceramic insulator with surface of approximately 1 cm². Open channel grooved in the insulator connects both electrodes. This channel is filled with fuel (PFPE) through a capillary which constitute the end of the supply system consisting of a tank, a micro-pump and a valve. In the figure, there are also shown temperature and pressure sensors. The voltage to which the battery is charged (750-1500 V) is insufficient to ignite the discharge on the surface of the propellant filling the channel. That is why to initiate the main discharge an additional igniter system is used, supplied from a pulsed high voltage generator (10-20 kV), like in classical Teflon thrusters. Therefore, the use of the igniter allows one to control the initiation of the discharge according to the demand, whereas the provided propellant, together with a fully charged battery, awaits in the channel without outgassing (like in thrusters with solid polymer).

Scheme of L-μPPT, view of the electrodes and the channel filled with propellant and photographs of discharge on the insulator surface and the propagating plasma.